Petrophysical Techniques; Geology/Geophysics 449

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Questions on Petrophysical Log Interpretation will not appear in the following exam. Log questions are published under a separate section.

Go to: Midterm II | Well Log Interpretation

Geology (GLGY 449-UCAL) Midterm I

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Question 1

Most hydrogen in subsurface exists in what form? (ID-PT1-30)

A	Within water molecules.
B	In the chemical structures of clay.
C	As basic solutions.
D	As saline solutions.
E	As a part of hydrous minerals.

Question 2

Which of the following conditions would Geologists prefer? (ID-PT1-02)

A	Fast mudcake buildup with very shallow mud filtrate.
B	Slow mudcake buildup with very shallow mud filtrate.
C	Fast mudcake buildup with very deep mud filtrate.
D	Slow mudcake buildup with very deep mud filtrate.
E	It all depends on the type of mud used for the drilling process.

Question 3

Where are the logging equipment placed (sensor processors, emitters, etc) in a typical logging while drilling (LWD) string? (ID-PT1-45)

A	In the electronics bay.
B	Outside of the borehole; in the data collection truck.
C	In the bottom hole assembly
D	In the logging equipment casing.
E	Inside the equipment pads.

Question 3 Explanation:

Bottom Hole Assembly is also known as BHA and it is right above the drill bit.

Question 4

What is the minimum vertical bed resolution of gamma ray tools running at normal speeds? (ID-PT1-11)

A	10 - 15 cm
B	40 - 50 cm
C	20 - 30 cm
D	60 - 70 cm
E	5 -10 cm

Question 5

Why do we use gamma rays instead of alpha or beta rays for logging? (ID-PT1-01)

A	Gamma rays are not naturally produced in the subsurface hence removes the uncertainty factor.
B	Gamma rays produce a much higher energy difference that can be easily measurable by logging tools.
C	Gamma rays are more penetrative than the others.
D	Gamma rays travel faster than other rays.
E	Gamma rays do not react with any chemical components in the natural world.

Question 6

How is the count of gamma ray remaining after interaction with the formation is represented on a density log? (ID-PT1-39)

A	As matrix density.
B	As fluid density.
C	As bulk density.
D	As a difference between bulk and fluid density.
E	As neutron density.

Question 7

For any type of logging tool, the minimal vertical bed resolution may be higher than what is typical when... (ID-PT1-17)

A	...the contrast between the nearby formations and the resolved formation is higher.
B	...the porosity and permeability of formations are higher.
C	...the radioactivity of the formations are much higher.
D	...the distance between formations are lower.
E	...the depth of investigation is much higher than expected hence increasing the vertical minimum bed resolution.

Question 8

Calculate the porosity, if the formation density was 2.25 g/cc on the density log and the core grain density was 2.80 g/cc. Assume the fluid density is 1.20 g/cc. (ID-PT1-37)

A	2.9%
B	29%
C	35%
D	3.0%
E	34%

Question 8 Explanation:

porosity = (density_matrix - density_bulk) / (density_matrix - density_fluid)
porosity = (2.80 - 2.25) / (2.80 - 1.20) = 0.34 = 0.34%

Question 9

What is the primary purpose of controlling density of the mud during drilling? (ID-PT1-08)

A	To prevent mud filtrate from reaching inner parts of the formation of interest.
B	To increase the speed of the drilling by applying pressure to the drill bit.
C	To balance the lithostatic pressure of the formation to prevent borehole collapses.
D	To balance the hydrostatic pressure of the formation to prevent borehole collapses.
E	To allow cutting to be transported to the surface.

Question 10

Why does the top drive drilling system considered an improvement in drilling technologies? (ID-PT1-04)

A	Improved drill bits.
B	Improved logging tools.
C	Improved logistics due to smaller equipment.
D	Improved cost efficiency (low cost).
E	Improved speeds of drilling.

Question 11

A typical neutron log response to presence of shale is characterized by... (ID-PT1-19)

A	...a very low negative response.
B	...a response close to the calibrated zero position.
C	...no response at all (at zero level).
D	...a very high positive response.

Question 12

Which of the following is the best log for determining permeability? (ID-PT1-21)

A	Caliper logs
B	Gamma ray logs
C	Neutron logs
D	Spontaneous potential logs
E	Density logs Hint: Nope, that's an indicator of porosity.

Question 13

What is the typical purpose of spectral gamma rays (SGR) logs? (ID-PT1-42)

A	Primary depth control.
B	Identification of non-radioactive clays and dolostones.
C	Calculate the bulk porosity of formation.
D	Calculate the volume of shale to sand ratio.
E	Analysis of grain volumes and grain characteristics of formation.

Question 14

Which of the following statement is correct about mud invasion? (ID-PT1-23)

A	The invaded zone is larger in low porosity and permeability formations because slower flow result in slow build up of mudcake.
B	Larger invaded zones provides the best resolutions of LWD logs because it allow the waves/signals to be penetrated deep into the formation.
C	The invaded zone is larger in high porosity and permeability formations because faster flow result in slow build up of mudcake.
D	The mid invasion is enhanced by the fast build up of mudcake.

Question 15

Which of the following tool's measurements are effected by salinity of the drilling mud/fluid? (ID-PT1-26)

A	Caliper tools
B	Spontaneous potential tools
C	Density tools
D	Neutron tools
E	Gamma ray tools

Question 16

You were tasked with choosing the cheapest but environmentally most friendly type of mud for a drilling operation. The area is known to have a large formations of evaporates. Which of the following type of drilling mud would you choose and why? (ID-PT1-05)

A	Water-based mud because it the most effective way to reduce the environmental impact.
B	Synthetic-based mud because the mud can be engineered to be inactive with the evaporate formations and reduce the environmental impact.
C	Oil-based mud because oils do not react with evaporates and the mud can be formulated to not to react with subsurface formations.
D	All-oil based mud because it is the cheapest and can overcome the environmental cleanup costs.

Question 17

Which of the following most likely to occur during burial of sandstone, shale and clay bearing formations? (ID-PT1-43)

A	No porosity loss within shale sequence due to shale being already compacted by the time of burial.
B	Increased rate of friction between clay particles due to overburden pressure.
C	Lower rate of porosity loss within the shale sequence due to tightly packed ionic bonds in shale.
D	Rapid loss of porosity within the sandstone sequence due to sandstone having higher permeability.
E	Lower porosity loss in clay sequence compared to sandstone and shale due to clay being very dry in nature.

Question 18

Thorium-232 isotope interacts with gamma rays used by logging tools. Where do you find Thorium-232 in nature? (ID-PT1-41)

A	In stable minerals such as phosphates.
B	In radioactive natural deposits of uranium as a by product.
C	Subsurface formation waters as trace substance.
D	Within clay minerals such as illite and smectite.

Question 19

A density log is run in a producing formation giving a bulk density reading of 2.50 g/cc. From core measurements, the formation’s rock matrix density is measured as 3.40 g/cc and the fluid density is 1.41 g/cc. Based on this information what is the porosity? (ID-PT1-34)

A	~ 20%
B	~ 45%
C	~ 5%
D	~ 15%
E	~ 35%

Question 20

What is the typical depth of investigation for density log running at normal speeds? (ID-PT1-15)

A	0 - 10 cm
B	40 - 50 cm
C	15 - 20 cm
D	25 - 30 cm
E	30 - 35 cm

Question 20 Explanation:

To be fair, you could argue it is always less than 10 cm and not 0 - 10 cm. However, in multiple choice exams, you must pick the best possible answer.

Question 21

Fundamentally neutron tools measure... (ID-PT1-31)

A	...the radiation that was not absorbed by the formation.
B	...the radiation omitted by elastic collisions between the neutron and the formation nuclei.
C	...the neutron radiation omitted by the formation nuclei.
D	...the radiation omitted by inelastic collisions between the neutron and the formation nuclei.

Question 22

What type of logging tool is described bellow? (ID-PT1-35)

Depth of Investigation: 15 -25 cm
Resolution: 50 cm
-Very high readings when shales or coals detected

A	Neutron log
B	Caliper log
C	Spontaneous Potential log
D	Gamma Ray or Special Gamma Ray long
E	Density log

Question 23

What is the typical vertical minimum bed resolution for density log running at normal speeds? (ID-PT1-16)

A	25 - 35 cm
B	40 - 50 cm
C	10 - 40 cm
D	15 - 20 cm
E	0 - 10 cm

Question 24

Given a geothermal gradient of 25^o C/km, what is the approximate temperature at 2200 m below surface if the surface temperature is 10^oC? (ID-PT1-09)

A	~ 55 ^o C
B	~ 43 ^o C
C	~ 49 ^o C
D	~ 65 ^o C
E	~ 45 ^o C

Question 24 Explanation:

(25^o C/km)(2200m)(1km/1000m) + 10^o C= 65 ^o C

Question 25

The following diagram is a cross section of two identical boreholes. The only difference is that they were placed in two different locations. The brown area indicates the mud invasion. Given all other conditions are being the same, which of the following statements are correct? (ID-PT1-33)

A	The Well-I most likley surrounded by a lithology that poor in porosity and permeability than Well-II; hence faster mudcake build up have lead to smaller invaded zone.
B	The Well-II most likely surrounded by a lithology that is very porous and permeable than Well-I; hence the faster mud flow resulted in a large invaded zone.
C	The Well-II most likley surrounded by a lithology that poor in porosity and permeability than Well-II; hence the faster mud flow resulted in a large invaded zone.
D	The Well-I most likely surrounded by a lithology that is very porous and permeable than Well-II; hence faster mudcake build up have lead to smaller invaded zone.

Question 26

Gamma rays interact with the formation primarily through what process? (ID-PT1-27)

A	Gamma ray bouncing effect
B	Compton scattering
C	Radioactive capture
D	Natural gamma rays
E	Pair production

Question 27

Which of the following will increase the depth of investigation (DOI) of gamma ray logs? (ID-PT1-40)

A	Higher formation fluid content allowing gamma rays to penetrate the formation.
B	Lower formation density resulting fewer gamma rays being absorbed.
C	Higher formation porosity allowing more gamma rays to penetrate the formation.
D	Higher radioactivity within the formation allowing gamma rays to interact with minerals within the formation.
E	Higher formation density resulting more gamma rays being absorbed.

Question 28

What do we used for calibration of neutron tools? (ID-PT1-18)

A	clean sandstones
B	clean clay
C	clean coal
D	clean limestones
E	clean shale

Question 29

You noticed a very high gamma ray response. Given you do not have access to any other form of logs, what is the most suitable expiation for the observed response? (ID-PT1-13)

A	Very thin formation;
B	Highly radioactive formation;
C	Coal;
D	Shale;
E	Highly non-radio active formation;

Question 30

What type of log is used to measure borehole size and shape? (ID-PT1-07)

A	Spontaneous potential logs
B	Caliper logs
C	Gamma ray logs
D	Density logs
E	Spectral gamma ray logs
F	Neutron logs

Question 31

What does the bulk density and neutron porosity cross overs indicate? (ID-PT1-20)

A	high natural radiation levels
B	gradual increase in density
C	sudden increase in density
D	gas effect

Question 32

What is the best option to increase the extraction of hydrocarbon fluids from a formation? (ID-PT1-22)

A	Use fracking to fracture the formations to increase permeability.
B	Use horizontal drilling.
C	Use larger boreholes and wider cutting tools.
D	Use high pressured drilling mud.

Question 32 Explanation:

Why not fracking the best option? This is expensive and fracking not always produce an increase in output. Also there are too many unknowns in fracking compared horizontal drilling.

Question 33

What is the primary reason why we are interested in density logs? (ID-PT1-14)

A	The density can be used to calculate porosity of formations.
B	It provides an overview of the lithological formations (for example, quartz from calcite).
C	The density logs can be used to resolve extremely thin formations and transitional zones.
D	A high log value of density indicates a very good reservoirs.
E	It can help determine the type of drill bit to use to cut into the formations.

Question 33 Explanation:

While used with combination of other logs, density logs can be used to derive lithological interpretations, the primary use is the calculation of porosity.

Question 34

In a typical mud system used in Alberta, we have the following components. Place them in order starting from dirty mud returns. (ID-PT1-03)

(START) Dirty/used mud return to...
I. Distiller
II. Mud storage and settling tubs
III. Annulus spit out
IV. Desander
V. Shale shaker
VI. Mud pumps

A	I --> V --> VI --> II --> IV --> III
B	I --> V --> IV --> II --> VI --> III
C	III --> V --> I --> II --> VI --> V
D	V --> IV --> I --> II --> VI --> III
E	I --> III --> VI --> IV --> V --> II
F	II --> V --> I --> III --> VI --> V

Question 35

Which of the following situations will drastically reduce the effectiveness of neutron tools? (ID-PT1-25)

A	High vibrations caused by drilling tools.
B	Porous formations filled with oil or gas.
C	Porous formations filled with water.
D	Fractures formed due to drilling itself (non-natural fractures).

Question 35 Explanation:

Neutrons are absorbed by the hydrogen nuclei in water.

Question 36

Which of the following most likely the primary cause of porosity in deep lithologies? (ID-PT1-29)

A	Dissolution of early diagenetic cements
B	Disintegration of minerals
C	Organic activity
D	Fracture development
E	Dissolution of cemented materials due to high temperature and pressure

Question 37

What is the temperature regime of Logging While Drilling (LWD) tools? (ID-PT1-24)

A	It is dependent on what type of logging tool is used.
B	It is that of the drilling mud.
C	It is that of the formation.
D	It is that of the surface.

Question 38

What is the typical depth of investigation for gamma ray log running at normal speeds? (ID-PT1-12)

A	20 - 30 cm
B	10 - 15 cm
C	5 - 10 cm
D	60 - 70 cm
E	40 - 50 cm

Question 39

What is counter acting the fluid invasion during drilling and after the well casing is placed? (ID-PT1-38)

A	Lithostatic and hydrostatic pressure of the formation.
B	Thin mud film between the casing and the formation.
C	Hydrostatic pressure of the formation.
D	Lithostatic pressure of the formation.
E	Mudcake itself surrounding the borehole.

Question 40

Spontaneous potential (self potential/SP) tools usually use NaCl. Which of the ions from this solution diffuse causing a potential difference and why? (ID-PT1-32)

A	The Cl^- ion diffuse because Na⁺ attracts more water molecules.
B	The Cl^- ion diffuse because it is much smaller in size than Na⁺.
C	The Cl^- ion diffuse because it has a stronger charge (attraction) than Na⁺.
D	The Na⁺ ion diffuse because Cl^- attracts more water molecules.
E	The Na⁺ ion diffuse because it has a stronger charge (attraction) than Cl^-.
F	The Na⁺ ion diffuse because it is much smaller in size than Cl^-.

Question 41

Which of the following might be the best process to introduce significant amount of effective porosity at higher depths? (ID-PT1-44)

A	Dissolution of early diagenetic cements.
B	Dissolution of grains at the grain to grain contact boundaries.
C	Fractures of cements and minerals.
D	Break up of mineral compounds causing in situ porosity.

Question 42

A very usual high response in gamma ray logs most likely caused by which of the following lithologyy? (ID-PT1-28)

A	Black shale
B	Clean sand
C	Clean coal
D	Organic content poor shale
E	Carbonates
F	Mudstone

Question 43

While neutrons used in neutrons tools have significantly shorter half life, what is the half life of free neutrons in nature? (ID-PT1-36)

A	About 15 minutes
B	About a day
C	About 4 hours
D	About 10 hours
E	About 2 years

Question 44

What is the typical range for geothermal gradient for planet Earth? (ID-PT1-06)

A	20^o to 30^o Celsius per kilometer of depth.
B	20^o to 30^o Celsius per meter of depth.
C	15^o to 50^o Celsius per kilometer of depth.
D	30^o to 50^o Celsius per meter of depth.
E	15^o to 25^o Celsius per kilometer of depth.
F	30^o to 50^o Celsius per kilometer of depth.

Question 45

Which of the following allow gamma rays to penetrate deep into the formation? (ID-PT1-10)

A	Very high density allowing gamma rays to bounce off from atom to atom deep into the formation.
B	High radioactive formations hence with more constructive interference.
C	Very low density where fewer gamma rays are absorbed hence increasing the propagation distance.
D	Formations that naturally produce very high rates of gamma rays hence allowing the artificial gamma rays to be amplified.
E	Low radioactive formations hence less destructive interference.

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Credits: Based on the excellent class notes provided by, Dr. Rudi Meyer during Fall 2014.
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If you are a company or an organization willing to donate copies of well logs, please contact me. I really appreciate your contributions.

Type of tool	DOI	Resolution	Used for…	Processes	Notes
Caliper	NA	NA	-Borehole size and shape	Spring loaded arms	2 arm = diameter 4 arm = shape, orientation
Gamma Ray	10 – 15 cm	~40 cm	-Lithology(vol. Shale/Sand often due to high K), geosteering, facies, depth control	-Photoelectric effect (dom) -Compton scattering -Pair production -Scintillation counter + photomultiplier	High (right kick): -Shale line -Organic content -K-Feldspars Low (left kick): -Clean sand -Carbonates -Clean coals
Spectral Gamma Ray			-Radioactive anomalies -Clay types -Volume of shale(clay)	-Same as GR, but much better/larger scintillator
Density & Photoelectric Factor	< 10 cm	11 – 40 cm	-Porosity, general lithology, min ids
Neutron	15 – 25 cm	~50 cm	-Fluid, porosity, density, cross-over gas effect -Meassures porosity; used for calulating density	Hydrogen	High (left kick): -Shales and coals Low (right kick): -Gas breaing fm./rocks Use Dphi & Nphi chart *Decreased with increased permeability
Spontaneous Potential	Depends	Depends	-Permeability(even small), lithology, facies, shale volume(not so much)	Natural potential differences between fms. caused by: -Diffusion -Mambrane or shale potential	Important: -Salinity of drilling fluid to fm. -Conductive drilling fluid -Constrasting permeability in adj. beds -Surface electrode(earth) No absolute scale(relatove +/-) Positive kick (relative): -Clean sand or sand stone, shaly sand Negative kick (relative): -Shale *Decreased with increased permeability

Sanuja Senanayake

Geology 449-University of Calgary

Go to: Midterm II | Well Log Interpretation

Geology (GLGY 449-UCAL) Midterm I

Standing on the shoulders of giants

Go to: Midterm II | Well Log Interpretation

Geology (GLGY 449-UCAL) Midterm I

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Standing on the shoulders of giants